Current Research in Astronomy Essay Example for Free

Current Research in Astronomy Essay For many astronomers, Adaptive Optics is something like a dream coming true. Since 1609 and the first observations of celestial bodies performed with the help of an optical telescope, astronomers have always fought to improve the resolving power of their instruments. For a long time, engineers have trimmed the optical quality of the telescopes, until they finally reached the barrier set by the atmospheric turbulence. At that point, the intrinsic quality of the site became a major issue to establish new observatories with modern telescopes, and astronomers started to desert the urban skies and to migrate toward mountains and deserts (Alloin and Mariotti 2004 9). The recent emergence Adaptive optics aims at providing diffraction limited long exposure images at large telescopes, which is greatly considered as one of astronomy’s breakthrough (Alloin and Mariotti 2004 9; Espinosa 1997 12). By far, the largest limitation to the application of adaptive optics to astronomy is very limited sky coverage when using natural guide stars for wavefront sensing. Similar limitations existed for many military applications of adaptive optics (Espinosa 1997 12). Adaptive optics systems provide a real time correction of the distorted wavefronts; they restore all the properties of light prior to the final part of its travel through the atmosphere (Alloin and Mariotti 2004 9). Discussion Adaptive Optics: Wavefront and Laser Guide Star (LGS) Adaptive optic systems for atmospheric turbulence compensation require a reference star for correcting wavefront distortion. The sodium LGS relies on resonant backscattering of a laser tuned into the D2 sodium absorption line to provide a reference, but LGS must sufficiently bright to correct high order wavefront aberration (Zamorano, Gorgas and Gallego 2001 317). The key concept in adaptive optics is the wave front, which is found by tracing out an equal optical path (distance x refractive index) from a source to the region of interest. For a point source and free space, wavefronts are spherical, and for starlight, the distance is so large that for all practical purposes the wavefronts entering the Earth’s atmosphere are plane. After propagating through the random refractive index of the atmosphere, the wavefront entering the telescope pupil is random, and its statistics determine the image quality, and govern how an adaptive optical system might be used to compensate for the distortion (Agerorges 2000 4). Such effect greatly depends on the laser lunch power, polarization’s beam, atmospheric transmission and the sodium column density, which, if obtained appropriately, might even enhance the imagery, increase the scope of telescopic observatory, and improve the image details of pictures obtained from astronomical studies (Zamorano, Gorgas and Gallego 2001 317). The use of LGS AO has caught on quickly within the astronomical community in large part because, equipped with adaptive optics operating at the diffraction limit in the near-infrared, the new 6- to 10-m telescopes possess the capability to match the angular resolution in the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) in the visible and to exceed its resolution in the near infrared (Rodier 256). Laser Guide Star LGS, basically, is a technology that utilizes AO imaging in order to enhance graphical imagery of telescopes and view astronomical images with additional quality. The technology uses an artificial star in order to act as a wavefront reference source, which consequently corrects light distortion (Zamorano, Gorgas and Gallego 2001 317). The need for a bright stellar was always a concern for astronomical applications of adaptive optics. To operate, a wavefront sensor must have sufficient light to overcome photon noise and background noise with enough light left over to form the image. In astronomy, few stars of scientific interest are sufficiently bright. For imaging uncooperative satellites, reflected light is often too dim or nonexistent. In 1985, French astronomers Foy and Labeyrie published work detailing how one might use backscatter from a laser focused to a point in the atmosphere as an artificial beacon (a guide star) for astronomical adaptive optics. As work progressed in the astronomy community to build and test a laser powerful enough to have sufficient backscatter for the Foy-Labeyrie method (Tyson 2000 5). Since the beginning of the 1980s, classified U. S military work was addressing the problems of projecting high-energy laser beams from the ground to space for missile defense and secure communications. The research from 1982 at the U. S Air Force Starfire Optical Range (USAFSOR) directed by Robert Fugate advanced the laser guide star concept and produced a wealth information about laser performance requirements, adaptive optics system operation, atmospheric physics, and closed loop image of space borne objects. By 1991, the bulk of military work on laser guide starts was declassified and made available to astronomers around the world (Tyson 2000 5). Currently, LGS is being developed by various nations, setting up their own laser beacon and extensively enhancing research through the said technology. The use of a laser beacon as the reference source enables faint objects to be compensated by adaptive optics, at the expense of greater hardware complexity. The laser beacon must be directed within the isoplanatic angle of the science object at the observation wavelength; although, this procedure provide only short-exposure correction. On the other hand, a fixed natural guide star possesses the ability to further stabilized the image during long exposures so that sky coverage depends on the distribution of stars, which consequently enhances the space imagery (Hardy 1998 309). There are many cases where the object itself, such as a sunlit satellite, is insufficient for wavefront sensing. In astronomy, there are billions of stellar objects too dim for sensing and not near enough in the sky to bright objects. For high-energy laser propagation to uncooperative targets or satellite tracking and imaging, an artificial source must be placed above the atmosphere to provide photons for the wavefront sensor and subsequent compensation. Lasers actually provide only partial correction, because a natural star still is required and opposite tilt upon traveling up into the atmosphere and returning (Tyson 2000 6-7). Particularly exciting development is the use of adaptive telescope mirrors to compensate for the distortion of stellar images produced by atmospheric turbulence. Using adaptive optics, ground-based telescopes are now demonstrating diffraction-limited performance, albeit over relatively small fields of view. It can be expected that large ground-based telescopes will have higher resolution and light-gathering power than space-based telescopes, since both of these performance metrics depend on aperture size. Moreover, ground-based telescopes can be larger than those space-based ones; hence, enabling higher development and scope for stellar imagery. The adaptive optical system of LGS displays 0. 07-arcsecond resolution, which is almost a hundred times better than past ground-based telescope systems but uses a telescope built approximately 80 years ago (national Research Council 1998 137-138). Conclusion LGS AO is one of the breakthroughs of current astronomical imagery, which provides enhanced images and display features that are usually not present in the space-based telescopes, such as HCT. The mechanism involved utilizes a guide star or an artificial star that facilitates the graphical imagery. LGS works as distortion corrector enabling enhanced imaging through AO ground-based telescopes. Conclusion Ageorges, N. Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics for Astronomy. Springer, 2000. Alloin, Danielle M. , and Jean-Marie Mariotti. Adaptive Optics for Astronomy. Springer, 2004. Espinosa, Jose. Instrumentation for Large Telescopes. Cambridge University Press, 1997. Flectcher, L. Solid State Laser for Subaru Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics. Subaru Telescope. 6 July 2005. 8 Jan. 2008 www. nao. ac. jp/E/Outreach/pr-rl/2005/index. html. Flectcher, L. Observational Methods. 14 Feb. 2005. 8 Jan. 2008 http://www. astro. gla. ac. uk/users/lyndsay/TEACHING/A1OBSMETH/VIEWGRAPHS/starlight-figure1. jpg. Hardy, John W. Adaptive Optics for Astronomical Telescopes. Oxford University Press, 1998. National Research Council (U. S. ), . Harnessing Light: Optical Science and Engineering for the 21st Century. National Academies Press, 1998. Roddier, Francois . Adaptive Optics in Astronomy. Cambridge University Press, 1999. Tyson, Robert K. Adaptive Optics Engineering Handbook. CRC Press, 2000. Zamorano, Jaime, Javier Gorgas, and Jesus Gallego. Highlights of Spanish Astrophysics II. Springer, 2001.

Diversity in the Classroom

Diversity in the Classroom Schools are the places where the children shape their personalities and behavior. Like a child who shapes his or her personal outlook, even the school will be shaped by diverse cultural practices and values of the society. In essence, schools also reflect the existing norms of the society for which they set up. Interrelated and closely bonded beliefs and values are very common the culture of the schooling. In this chapter, an attempt was made to relate the basic ideology that underlines the culture in the US with many core values and beliefs. In addition, a link was made to relate the basic ideology as a means of divulging the deeper meaning of culture. Child rearing is a very meaningful approach that one can use to reveal the deeper meaning of the culture. Rearing children in a classroom has a strong link with the underlying culture of diverse ethnic groups. Several authors in the past have tried to explain what childrearing is, especially in the context of existing cultural practices. Almost all authors believe that childrearing is a mirror of different cultural ideologies along with practices and values of different cultures. Ogbu (Ogbu, 1981) believes that parents prepare their children for the society and the world as they know and experience it. Society can easily influence and shape our schools. The core values and practices of the society are some of the critical factors that shape our schools. Educators, students and parents may never understand the deeper meaning of culture within the ambience of school learning. Traditional definitions of culture given by noted anthropologists may not be sufficient for designing and executing school learning experiences that are so common in culturally different settings. In this section, we will treat objectifying culture as the basic step in the process of designing and constructing a simple and workable definition of culture. This simple working definition will help us streamline planning school learning experiences among different people. What is objectifying culture? A simple depersonalization process that helps us in conducting critical examination of the ideologies that support accepted and acknowledged social behavior and cultural practices. Ideologies and beliefs can reflect different aspects of deep meaning of culture. Schools are the learning centers that also reflect the cultural norms of a larger sized society. Deeper meaning of the culture can also be revealed through inspecting and evaluating ideologies and any interconnected beliefs and values. One can also reveal the deep meaning of culture by including communication among parents, teachers and students, and different social interaction patterns, as well as childrearing methods and practices. The Culture of Practice in a Struggling School Every teacher is different. Each one of them has own ideological stance and understanding of culture. In fact, these two viewpoints shape how they see school curriculum, learning process, pedagogy and social context that allow learning in school. In nutshell, the way and manner in which a teacher understands the culture influences in the school, will ultimately influence his or her ability to provide meaningful and productive learning experiences to the students. This chapter will provide two main benefits: It provides you a solid groundwork to comprehend cultural diversity in a classroom; It also helps you learn how to teach traditionally underserved students, who come from diverse and experiential backgrounds. Hollins (Hollins, 2006) reported about an approach, which was identified as a structured dialogue, playing an important tool to assist convert the culture of practice followed in a low performing school. In such schools, teachers also learned how to teach traditionally underserved urban students. The first part of this chapter presents you the study as reported by Hollins. On the other hand, the second section of this chapter deals with the things that teachers learned in their classroom, in the form of a structure that is planned at divulging the deeper meaning of culture within the ambience of a school. The most critical components of this framework are: Culturally mediated cognition and Culturally mediated instruction The main goal of this dedicated discussion is to bring an awareness of the culture of practice in very low performing urban schools. This expertise will empower you to evaluate your own progress as a dedicated classroom teacher and shun possible scenarios where you will be introduced unconsciously to the prevailing practice of culture. What is a structured dialogue? It is an intricate process of learning, where all teachers come together in a study group styled format, to discuss and learn more about their classroom dialogues. In the process of conducting a series of dialogues, teachers can describe the unique successes and special challenges they encounter in their classrooms along with evidences and testimonies from each of the participating teacher. The most significant benefit of a structured dialogue process is the teachers ability to learn from other on different methods that can help in improving classroom practices and student learning outcomes. Identifying a Developmental Trajectory Hollins (Hollins, 2006) also worked on developing a developmental trajectory for modifications in the culture of practices in many of the underperforming urban schools. This trajectory involved three positions and three markers. The positions were: A Natal or initial culture identified in many of the underperforming schools just at the initiation of the study. A transitional position, when old practices and values were replaced or changed with new ones by the participating teachers A transformed culture, where all participating teachers adapted new and fresh values, practices and perceptions On the other hand, three important markers suggested for changes in the teachers culture of practices are: Teachers perceived perceptions and opinions about students, Teachers perceived perceptions and opinions about instruction and Interrelationship among different teachers Learning more about different positions The natal position is a simple, yet effective approach to structured dialogue. The teachers of a school join as a group, in low performing schools, to hold a deficit viewpoint of their students to focus on a number of issues like: Lack of skills, knowledge and information among students A perceived negative view of a students conditions of living An attitude that parents show disinterest in their childrens education In fact, every classroom is bound to lead to differences in learning outcomes. These differences could be due to a number of reasons like: Students effort and dedication towards studies, Intelligence, skills and perceived smartness Familys social status in the society In a natal position, teachers may or may not visit each others classroom or they may or may not talk to each other regarding their teaching methods. In fact, classroom instruction delivered by teachers was private and confidential. School authorities ensured that new teacher inductees were formally socialized into this new culture. Next, will be the transitional position. During this position, teachers may never talk negative about a student. However, it is quite difficult to realize similar outcomes with all the instructional approaches used by the teachers. This issue resulted in a serious discussion about the existing relationship between the teaching approach and the student-learning outcome. Dialogues about individual teaching practices veered towards personal, although individual teachers were careful about assuming responsibility for learning outcome among students. Senior teachers started giving better attention to the induction of new teachers by setting up informal and personal mentoring sessions. These sessions always included provision of guidance and help about teaching methods and approaches. On the other hand, transformational position is the last position that emerges during the third year of the study. The positive aspect of this position was that teachers always talked positive about their stu dents. In fact, positive outcome was the most significant benefit of this position. With the initiation of this position, teachers talked more about: The information students know and understand What should they know more about What instructional methods appeal them the most Teachers also found time to discuss many other issues like: The existing relationship among teaching methods and approaches Attributes of the student community Learning outcomes and results Teachers become more responsive by taking full responsibilities for their students learning outcomes. Teachers also start talking more about their students strengths, weaknesses and other related issues. In fact, everyone in the pubic knew about what students are doing and how they are performing. Teachers took each others suggestions seriously, visited others classrooms and later assumed full responsibility for their own classroom actions. All senior teachers started taking additional responsibilities about the new inductee teachers. Hollins (Hollins, 2006) presented the concept of developmental trajectory that is closely related to the typology subject discussed in Chapter I. The trajectory and typology discussed here gives you three important positions with relating categories of indicators for conceptualizing teaching methods. When you compare positions and indicators in the typology highlighted erstwhile in the first chapter of the book, with those of Hollins, many similarities may exist between the indicators, across many positions in the typology and the trajectory. For example, You can observe that the Type I teachers mentioned in the typology are almost similar to the teachers that were mentioned in the natal position, especially in the trajectory on indicators for teachers viewpoint on students and instruction. On the other hand, many indicators in the transformational position lying on the developmental trajectory and in the Type III in the domain of typology indicate towards the application of a teachers knowledge and awareness about: The intricate relationship between many student attributes and experiences Instructional and teaching practices adapted by the teacher Learning outcome as a meaningful support for teaching that is productive and result oriented. As mentioned elsewhere in the book, a structured dialogue is an efficient tool for assisting the complete transformation of a community of teaching practice and practices of individual teachers. If you are a beginning teacher, who is just starting to interact with your students, you can use this tool to improve your teaching methods and practices. The typology and the trajectory are very beneficial to teachers, old or new, in many different ways. The term typology is descriptive; it tries to explain the perceptual position, and response of teachers who are hired to teach in K-12 schools. It is a very convenient tool for analysis, evaluation and introspection for planned personal growth. On the other hand, developmental trajectory means the transformation of the practice of culture in an underperforming school with that of a learning community that focuses on enhancing student learning outcomes. Tip: When you recognize different indicators of position in a culture of practice followed in a school, you can easily understand how to interact and converse with colleagues and in what manner you can monitor and evaluate your own individual growth after participating in a community of practice. Both trajectory and typology are very beneficial to teachers in many ways. However, the typology model presented before in the first chapter, only detected the basic characteristics of teachers perception and practices along the lines of three positions, and it did not provide a structure for comprehending the existing relationship between different culture and school practices. Hence, the remainder part of this chapter will provide a platform for understanding the existing association between learners cultural backgrounds, classroom learning mode and learning outcomes. Cultural Diversity in a Classroom This course framework will provide you a theoretical perspective for culling knowledge base from other chapters and elucidate the structure to assist application to practice. The main concepts embedded in the framework will give a broader meaning for locating self-identity within the ambits of a culturally diverse society for Making an inquiry into students cultural and experiential background, Undoing sensitive elements from purposeful learning for students who from diverse communities and study in elementary and secondary schools The other objective of this chapter is to make clear the existing relationship between culture, cognition, pedagogical practices and many learning outcomes. The underlying structure for comprehending cultural diversity in a typical classroom consists of two major parts, namely: Culturally intervened cognition and Culturally intervened instruction The former refers to the manner in which a students brain, memory structures and critical intellectual processes enhance, support and develop within a given cultural context. On the other hand, the latter includes a number of important components like culturally intervened cognition and prized knowledge and skills in school curriculum and culturally correct social scenarios for learning experience (see Table 7.2). Bransford, Brown, and Cocking (1999) pointed out that, all learning involves transfer from previous experiences (p. 56). The monumental work of Piaget and Vygptsky provides a theoretical ground for understanding cultural diversity in a classroom. This theory draws on available information processing to explain different structural components among different cultures, cognition, and pedagogy and learning experience for different cultural backgrounds. Note that you can find structural components among the participating individuals and groups, who are studying under different school settings. On the other hand, culture is unique and dynamic with constant changes and modifications. Journal Activity How do you handle a culturally diverse classroom? Explain how you want to teach and train your children, especially in the context of existing cultural practices. Explain how you will develop an ability to provide meaningful and productive learning experiences to the students, who are studying in a culturally struggling school. Differentiate between culturally mediated cognition and culturally mediated instruction. Explain your plan of action to make structural dialogue a success. Pause and Reflect As a teacher, why do think that a structured dialogue is an efficient tool for assisting the complete transformation of a community of teaching practice and practices of individual teachers. Provide reasons for your argument. What are the possible bottlenecks and potential problems that are likely to crop up, when you are using structured dialogues? Think of some strategies and plans to use different perceptions.

Essay for Shakespeares Sonnet 73 -- essays research papers

Anthony Tseng Gloomy, dejected, depressed: These are the emotional elements that William Shakespeare implemented into the speaker of Sonnet 73. An understanding that time doesn’t last forever and we all will age with the current of time. Thus he has accepted his fate, but wants us the readers to feel what he feels and see what he sees.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Each year more time passes by. Each year we age a little more. A year also dies out, and then comes a new year. An endless cycle of life and death. Represented each year by trees with yellow leaves. This is how the speaker has aged. Aged so much that â€Å"few do hang.† Those leaves are the very strands of life a person has in this world. It’s why people hold so dearly to the people they love, so they won’t lose them. But there’s always the last fork in the road, and that is death. No matter how strong a person is or determined, death will bring one’s downfall. He will be shaken to death by the strong cold wind. How cold it is to die old while the person you love is young. How he must die before someone he loves. It's a feeling of hopelessness, but a feeling that is dispelled by the â€Å"sweet birds† songs. Songs sang by his lover. Conversations that bring the essence of life back into him. What more can one have, than fo r a person that cares.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Without friends and family, solitude will blow the â€Å"dim light,† final gasp for life. Just like the sun setting in the west, an end to the term of life....

The Quantum Of Continuity :: essays research papers

<a href="http://philosophos.tripod.com">http://philosophos.tripod.com The problem of continuum versus discreteness seems to be related to the issue of infinity and finiteness. The number of points in a line served as the logical floodgate which led to the development of Set Theory by Cantor at the end of the 19th century. It took almost another century to demonstrate the problematic nature of some of Cantor's thinking (Cohen completed Godel's work in 1963). But continuity can be finite and the connection is, most times, misleading rather than illuminating. Intuition tells us that the world is continuous and contiguous. This seems to be a state of things which is devoid of characteristics other than its very existence. And yet, whenever we direct the microscope of scientific discipline at the world, we encounter quantized, segregated, distinct and discrete pictures. This atomization seems to be the natural state of things - why did evolution resort to the false perception of continuum? And how can a machine which is bound to be discrete by virtue of its "naturalness" - the brain - perceive a continuum? The continuum is an external, mental category which is imposed by us on our observations and on the resulting data. It serves as an idealized approximation of reality, a model which is asymptotic to the Universe "as it is". It gives rise to the concepts of quality, emergence, function, derivation, influence (force), interaction, fields, (quantum) measurement, processes and a host of other holistic ways of relating to our environment. The other pole, the quantized model of the world conveniently gives rise to the complementary set of concepts : quantity, causality, observation, (classic) measurement, language, events, quants, units and so on. The private, macroscopic, low velocity instances of our physical descriptions of the universe (theories) tend to be continuous. Newtonian time is equated to a river. Space is a yarn. Einstein was the last classicist (relativity just means that no classical observer has any preference over another in formulating the laws of physics and in performing measurements). His space-time is a four dimensional continuum. What commenced as a matter of mathematical convenience was transformed into a hallowed doctrine : homogeneity, isotropy, symmetry became enshrined as the cornerstones of an almost religious outlook ("God does not play dice"). These were assumed to be "objective", "observer independent" qualities of the Universe. There was supposed to be no preferred direction, no clustering of mass or of energy, no time, charge, or parity asymmetry in elementary particles.

Abbie Hoffman: A Present Day Monologue :: essays research papers fc

My name is Abbie Hoffman. Steal this speech while square dancing in the Ice ages, it’s soon to be a major motion picture†¦ Yippie! Do you know what that means? That means that there’s a revolution on, that we can change an H to a Y., that we can bring more than 10,000 people to Lincoln Park in Chicago on a myth, a rumor, a story. Yippie! It means the home of the FREE and the land of the BRAVE. Chicago was a place for the brave to fight for their freedom. When we came to chicago, we thought, hey, they’ll put up some resistance, but they’ll give us a permit to have our little Yippie! get-together in the park. I mean shit, it’s our right. Mayor Daley, he didn’t give a shit about our â€Å"rights† he didn’t want one goddamn hippie in his city, let alone 10,000. He didn’t want chicago to have that reputation, HE didn’t want to have that reputation. Do you know what happened in Chicago? According to Mayor Daley, only a few minor injuries due to resisting arrest and rioting; according to some outside sources, and my own count, a couple people died and a lot of people were wounded because the pigs were beating on us for practicing our right to assemble peacefully. Hell, we were peaceful, a damn sight more peaceful than the cops. We were assembled to protest war, all we wanted to do was get together and smoke a little weed. The cops, they came at us with arms swinging. But I get ahead of myself. You’re all so young, you don’t know about Chicago’s other, meaner side.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Chicago, we Yippies wanted to have a rally, and Chicago was really central to the movement, so we petitioned the Chicago Parks Department for a permit to have bands come play during the week of the Democratic Convention in 1968. They stalled, and pretended to have little problems with the permit. No one was fooled. We sued them for denying us our constitutional rights; but we withdrew our suit when we saw who our judge was. His name was Judge Lynch, and he was mayor Daley’s friend or cousin or something. Very ironic...the next judge that we went before because the city was stalling was Judge Stahl. S-T-A-H-L. So in a nutshell, we said â€Å"can we have a get-together in the park?

On the Size and Nature of the American Republic

After the American Revolution, a great debate ensued over the size and nature of the proposed American Republic. There were those who stressed a small republic constituted by 13 confederated states. There were also political thinkers who sought the establishment of a large, heterogeneous republic (comprised of different classes of people with different interests). To differentiate the specifics of the two contending views, there is a need to examine two prominent American figures who represented the differing views. Brutus represented those who want to establish a small confederated republic.James Madison represented the other group. Brutus on the Size of the American Republic For Brutus, a free republic would be unsuccessful if it was of immense extent (both geographically and politically). The increasing number of inhabitants as well as the increasing needs of a large republic put strains on the government. The consequence for him was clear: such large republic would, in time, fall to anarchy. He cited the argument of baron de Montesquieu as the basis of his view: â€Å"It is natural to a republic to have a small territory, otherwise it cannot lone subsist.In a large republic there are men of large fortunes, and consequently of less moderation; there are trusts too great to be placed in any single subject; he has interest of his own; he soon begins to think that he may be happy, great and glorious, by oppressing his fellow citizens; and that he may raise himself to grandeur on the ruins of his country†. For Brutus, the establishment of a large republic inevitably results to the concentration of power and wealth to the hands of the few. Because moderation is more or less absent in these people, their power and wealth are used to oppress the people.As time progresses, the oppression becomes more and more manifested in the deteriorating conditions of the people. The republic will soon bow to the power of the ruling and oppressive class of citizens. In add ition, because of the immense extent of the republic, the needs and demands (and dreams) of the people are lost in the myriads of a thousand interests. Some needs and views are sacrificed to the so-called â€Å"general will† which for Brutus was a vague concept. The negotiation of interests becomes a battle for power or authority.Those who occupy a significant position in government (or those who have contacts in the government) will have their views and interests magnified in the halls of the legislative branch. Thus, the true needs of the people are easily distorted. In addition, if the republic is small, the public good is easier taken into account by the government. It is easily comprehended by every citizen (subject to criticism). The interests, then, of the people are better protected because the abuses are of insignificant nature.Brutus cited the case of the Grecian and Roman republics as examples to strengthen his argument. In the beginning, these republics were of sm all size. Their governments were simple but democratic in form. Every need and view of citizens was taken into account, making governance a matter of citizen consent. In due time, however, these republics expanded their domains. Rome, for example, acquired territories from several wars against Carthage and some Asian kingdoms. The result was: their governments transformed from that of free government to those of tyrannical (and abusive) ones.Brutus on Authority The construction of a tyrannical government, with supreme authority vested on one person, would inevitably result to the destruction of the peoples’ authority. The people would not be able to exercise their rights and duties. They would not be able to force the government to account for its misdeeds. Public accountability would vanish; the person in power would project himself as an infallible leader, incapable of committing any mistakes while in office. Thus, the large republic would crumble.The remnants of democracy, made significant in democratic institutions, would vanish from history. The restoration of democracy, for Brutus, would be achieved through another bloody revolution, much greater in extent than the previous one. Brutus on Homogeneity With regard to homogeneity, in a free republic, â€Å"the manners, sentiments, and interests of the people should be similar†. If such was not the case, clashes would be unending. Antagonisms would develop among groups of people competing for power and wealth.This would inevitably result to the malfunctioning of the government. It would not be able to serve the people in its true capacity. The deadlock among competing groups would necessitate again the establishment of a despotic government, to which no citizen would proscribe to. Basis on Human Nature Thus, because the climate (social, political, and economic situation of states) of the United States was varied, there was a need to establish confederated states, governed by a nominal federal h ead of state.Here were the things that Brutus considered: 1) the interests of the states (correspondingly its people) were largely varied, 2) the customs and traditions of the states also varied, and 3) the states had differing opinions of the nature and extent of the proposed American republic. These considerations, for Brutus, were enough to justify the establishment of a small republic, for heterogeneous and discordant principles were clearly present. Brutus Fears on Some Provisions in the US Constitutions Brutus was well aware of some provisions in the US Constitutions which called for the establishment of a large republic.For example, the vesting of the power to draw and approve treaties on the president and the senate was an incursion to the rights of the states to determine foreign policies. The drawing of foreign policies of supra-legislative bodies was a characterization of legislative tyrannies (as in the case of France). The status of the president as commander in chief o f the armed forces was also questioned by Brutus. If the president held the power to unquestionably command the army, then there was a high chance that he would use it to maintain his position.For Brutus, these powers of the â€Å"national government† were vestiges of tyrannical governments; governments established to preserve order to a large state. Madison on the Size of the American Republic Before Madison presented his arguments as to the proper size and nature of the American Republic, he drew a sharp distinction between a democracy and a republic. Democracy is a state governed by direct democracy; that is, the decisions of the government are directed by the people. Its actions are based on the needs and demands of the sovereign will of the citizens.Thus, every citizen is required to participate in the affairs of the state. Political participation is therefore maximized in democracies. A republic, on the other hand, is characterized by the delegation or representation of the will of the people to elected delegates. The election of delegates will allow the people to choose the person who can best discern the public good. In addition, a large republic will usually offer the citizens more choices, so there will be a greater chance for quality candidates to be chosen to represent the public. Thus, Madison favored the establishment of a large republic that would govern the 13 states.Madison’s Rejection of Homogeneity as the Basis of the Republic Madison rejected homogeneity as the basis for the establishment of a republic. According to him, even pure democracies like Athens became avenues of torment and clashes of opinion. A pure democracy, such as that proposed by Brutus was not a guarantee to the protection and advancement of citizens’ interests. He believed that homogeneity existed in a vacuum; that is, it was no guarantee that a general reduction in the extent of a state (population) would inevitably to the perfection and assimilation of beliefs, passions, and interests (Madison, 1787).Even in a small republic, passions and interest were highly varied. Thus, human nature could not be rearranged by arranging the political atmosphere to which a human being is situated. A state, small or large, would be comprised of citizens having different opinions, interests, and passions. Madison also discussed the nature of factions in a state. For Madison, factions destroy the liberty of the individual to participate in the affairs of the state. Factions retard the functioning of the government, thus inefficiently delivering services to the people.Factions could be disastrous if the majority belong to a faction (the tyranny of the majority). If the majority succumbed to the will of the unreasonable passions, then the state would become a tool of oppression of the minority. Even if the minority presented strong arguments (reasonable) of a particular policy and the majority refused to allow such policy to be implemented, then su ch policy would not be implemented. If this was the case of the state, then the government would be inefficiently and ineffectively ruled by an oppressive group of people. Madison’s Solution to the Problem of FactionsMadison presented two solutions for the â€Å"factions† problem. The first solution was to destroy the conditions which were essential to the establishment of factions. The second solution was to give every citizen the same view, passions, and interests. For Madison, only the first solution was feasible. By establishment safety nets in governance (there were some provisions in the US constitution that guarantee the rights and interests of the minority), the effects of factionalism would be minimized (it would be impossible to totally eradicate factionalism in a diverse nation).These safety nets took the form of negotiated mediums; that is, avenues where interests could be aggregated. Madison as the First Pluralist Madison proposed the establishment of seco nd-in-importance agencies to take note of the interests of the minority. Even in supra-legislative bodies like the House of Representatives and the Senate, Madison proposed the institutionalization of lobbying methods. The purpose of which was to give every citizen (or group of citizens) the chance to air their views and interests.For Madison, aggregation of interests was the key to maintaining a large heterogeneous republic. Thus, Madison was usually called the â€Å"first pluralist. † In recent years, however, the so-called interplay between federalist and anti-federalist perspectives was essentially rooted from the increasing powers of the â€Å"national government. † Some people wanted a less strong central government to effectively serve the needs of the citizens. There are those who argued that a strong central government is essential to procure the best services for the people.

Broadway The American Musical Essay

At the start of the 20th century, the popular vaudeville shows that crossed the nation became the training ground and inspiration for the birth of the American musical. As the primary location for the professionalization of American performance art, understanding the complicated negotiation of gendered and racial identities on the Broadway stage provides important background to the development of an American identity in concert dance through the rest of the century. As you watch these videos notice how musicals come to represent American ideals such as abundance, opportunity, pluralism, optimism. 2.1 Give My Regards to Broadway: 2.1.1 Some of the images from the Follies look like the creation of a new Eden. It was said that in America the streets were paved with gold. Describe the ‘abundance’ found in Ziegfeld Follies and how this relates to an image of America. It reflects to how women being described pure like gold. In the show, all the women wear gold that describes valuable objects. Ziegfeld understands of how he could sell â€Å"sex† idea (by women) to the audience. 2.1.2 What were the Follies and how did they include the different ethnic minorities present in America. The include other cultures in the show by telling jokes to the audience. There were several culture mentioned in the jokes, such as Irish jokes, Italian jokes, and Jewish jokes. 2.1.3 A Follies ‘girl’ had to have a ‘regular profile’, and most were six feet tall. If a Follies girl is the ideal American girl, who is excluded from the image of ideal America? Mostly others race, such as Asian, Black, or any other race besides Causasion. 2.1.4 Many immigrants left the Old World because the social structures of the time kept them locked in a certain economic class. America held the promise of changing one’s station in life. It was the land of opportunity. How was the opportunity and variety found in Vaudeville representative of this idea of America? Vaudeville is the era when anyone can perfome anything featuring dancing, comedies, and singing that focus on individual performance. It represents the idea of America because it displays of mixed cultures in America. It defines a picture of culture variety in America, which unites America. 2.1.5 Describe the clip from Yankee Doodle Dandy. How is Cagney, playing Cohan, the ideal American? Look at who else is on stage, who is or is not allowed to be in this image of America?  Cagney represents a picture of American pictures, such as white man and high class image (nice suit). Based on the video, all of the people on stage are Causasion, which excludes other culture. 2.1.6 How does the musical ‘Mythologize’ America? 1.2.3=Lesson 1.Resource 2. Question 3 2 Mostly represent majority race (mostly represent Causasion), displays perfect picture of American girl (pure, pretty, perfect picture), and represents great music and dance. 2.1.7 How did Burt Williams both perpetuate and challenge stereotypes of black Americans? What does it mean for a black man to perform in black face? Burt William represents a picture of black Americans at that time by telling the audience jokes that related about black Americans. However, besides his jokes he also put other images like the pain being a black American indirectly by his jokes or by his song. Perform in black face was the only way for him to perform in enternainment industry. 2.1.8 Burt Williams claims that he would like to do both the ‘pathos’ (drama) and the fun, but he is known for comedy and if he did the pathos, he would no longer be Burt Williams. Is Burt Williams, then, an actual man, or just a character? Burt Williams at that times represents as a character only because he hides himself and only performs the arts by telling audience jokes. He understands  that his job is to entertain the audience. 2.1.9 Form/technique: Describe blackface performance through its origins, its popularity and performances by Burt Williams and Al Jolson.  Using blackface for black performers and white performers, mostly contains comedy, and stereotyping of black cultures (make fun of black Americans) 2.1.10 How did Fanny Brice break the expected image of the Ziegfeld girl? She breaks all the images of American standard of beauty such as being physically pretty. She represents a comedy story by using facial gestures and eyes movevents. 2.1.11 How did World War I change Broadway? It changed the characteristic of broadway, from blackface to Tin Pan Alley era where most of all the musicians and artists produce their idea in the one building and presents it after. 2.1.12 Show Boat was a marriage of what two traditions? European operetta and American musical comedy. 2.1.13 Why was Show Boat so influential? In terms of subject matter? In terms of who was included on stage? Show Boat represent producer’s idea of musics, which represents American music. 2.1.14 Based on what you have seen, how was Broadway ‘uniquely American’? It represented musical theme and comedy which was entertaining to audience. It also displayed of mixed cultural background to represent the arts on the stage, such as black American culture , Causasion culture (mostly European), and Jewish. 2.2 Syncopated City â€Å"In the ‘20s everyone had permission to visit each other’s land and see what they were doing.† 2.2.1 Alcohol was outlawed during Prohibition, but was not strictly enforced in NY. This meant that people of all social classes were breaking the law and thus normal rules about 1.2.3=Lesson 1.Resource 2.